Monitoring estuaries through in situ or remote sensing methods and laboratory analysis has facilitated the timely identification of threats, providing crucial information to stakeholders and administrations responsible for their management.Additionally, numerical modelling of estuaries has advanced considerably, contributing to a better understanding of estuarine processes and the effects of environmental changes on the ecosystems. Furthermore, the hydrodynamics of estuaries and the associated services are also being influenced by the impacts of climate change, including induced mean sea level rise, alterations in freshwater input, saltwater intrusion and an increase in air and water temperature.The rapid degradation of estuarine ecosystems underscores the necessity for the development and implementation of comprehensive and intensive monitoring methods and tools capable of predicting their natural evolution, as well as assessing the impacts of escalating climate and anthropogenic threats. These alterations directly impact hydrodynamic conditions (e.g., current velocity, flooding patterns, residence time, salinity intrusion, etc.), posing a threat to numerous species that may not be able to adapt to survive in different conditions. The major threats to estuaries include the discharge of pollutants and nutrients, which impairs water quality, and changes in geomorphology (e.g., channels dredging, construction of dams and hydraulic structures). However, these activities are recognised to unbalance the ecosystem functioning and sustainability. You just subscribed to receive the final version of the articleĪddition to being highly productive and sustaining a rich biodiversity, they also provide highly favourable conditions for the establishment of human settlements and the development of socio-economic activities.
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